International diploma in computer studies - Free Essay Example

Acknowledgement This is an assignment for Networking Assignment that is an elective subject in international diploma in computer studies (IDCS). Network is very important communicate each other. So, this is very important. I would like to thank to our teacher U Tin Naing Htwe who teaches us Networking. When he teaches this subjective, we know about networking thoroughly and can implement the tasks understanding. So I would like to thank to teacher U Tin Naing Htwe and my classmate who are Phyo, Zar Yar Shi, Myint Myint Aye and ma Yee Mon. They help me for my assignment because I am a new student. MCC class is separate two kind of student which is senior and junior. I am a junior student. So, at first I dont know what is an assignment? I was thought assignment is difficult for me but now I am having my assignment because of my classmate and my teacher. And thanks for my parents because they help me for assignment and they advices me this IDCS course is good for me. I like this subject and I must try to networking subject. I would like to offer acknowledge to Myanmar Company Ltd (MCC) and National Computer Company, Ltd (NCC) education. Introduction My name is LEI LEI MON.I have student from International Diploma in Computer Studies at MCC computer training Center. It is offered by NCC Education center. There are four subjects which are networking, java, system development and business communication. In my course is finish, we must do the assignment. The purpose of this assignment is the bank for Rural Development is set up as an apex development bank with a mandate for facilitating credit flow for promotion and development of agriculture, small-scale industries, cottage and village industries, handicrafts and other rural crafts. This assignment is for about the new networking advice the bank on cost effective networking solutions. The bank has mostly windows based network and clients. The bank also wants their agents and branches to connect to the banks network securely through VPN. What is networking? Networking involves connecting computers and other electronic devices for the purpose of sharing information and reasons and for communication. Even thought the concept of networking is basic, a great deal of technology is required for one device to connect and communicate with another, and many choices for physical connections and related software are possible. Site to Site Services Access Options: Frame Relay, Private Line, DSL, Metro Ethernet (2Q06), ATM (limited availability) IPSec Access via BellSouth IPSec gateway Optional Services: eMRS Complementary Managed Router Service(soft-bundle)option Internet access with firewall feature Equipment purchase, installation and maintenances services Firewall A firewall provides a strong barrier between your private network and the Internet. You can set firewalls to restrict the number of open ports, what types of packets are passed through and which protocols are allowed through. Some VPN products, such as Ciscos 1700routers, can be upgraded to include firewall capabilities by running the appropriate Cisco IOS on them. You should already have a good firewall in place before you implement a VPN, but a firewall can also be used to terminate the VPN sessions. Common type of firewalls Packet Filtering Circuit Gateways Application Level Proxy Stateful Packet Inspection Internet Connection Firewall Hybrid Firewall Packet Filtering A packet filtering firewall will examine the information contained in the header of a packet of information, trying to well-known bridge into the castle. Information on inspections includes the source address, destination, and applications have been sent to. A packet filtering firewall works at the network level Open Systems Interconnection (OSI definition of the next paragraph) protocol stack, therefore, do not hide the private network topology, and spy behind a firewall. It is important to know that this type of firewall only checks the header information. If the data to send a malicious from a reliable source, this type of firewall is not guaranteed. When a packet filtering process of transmission, it is passed to the destination address. If the packet does not pass, its just down. This type of firewall is vulnerable to IP fraud, a practice that hackers will transfer them to private local area network (LAN); it appears as if from a reliable source, to gain a local area network. OSIs every textbook network infrastructure plus definitions, OSI is a seven-layer structure, standardized level of service and type of interactive exchange of information through the network of computers. It is used to describe the physical connection between the data streams to the network and end-user applications. This model is the best-known and most widely used model to describe networking environments. Circuit Gateway Circuit gateway firewalls work in the transport layer protocol stack. They are fast, transparent, but in fact did not provide protection against attack. Circuit gateway firewall does not check the data package. A great help to this type of firewall is that they make the network invisible behind a firewall, as everything seems to come from inside the firewall from the firewall itself. This is the most used type of firewall. Application Level Proxy The slowest, most awkward is the application layer proxy firewall. This type of firewall on the work in the application layer protocol stack, which enable it to carry more information than packet filtering or circuit gateway firewall. Application-level proxy type of firewall is usually used in the corporate firewall, rather than a single family. To determine whether they are connected to a specific application to request permission, such as Internet access or e-mail. This allows the user to determine which applications will be used for the computer. Also known as proxy servers, they not only data packets on the screen and determine which applications to allow access, but also to provide protection from external sources within the computer by hiding from the outside to see. External sources never have access to computers inside, but all communications to be carried out through a proxy server. This approach in most cases more than the use of ordinary home computer users, it is more suitable for small businesses and enterprise solutions. This is mentioned here because of the popularity of home use peer-peer network to share dedicated Internet connection, such as cable modems. Stateful Packet Inspection The fourth method, we can use the firewall from the so-called stateful packet inspection. This is the so-called state, because it checks the contents of the packet to determine which countries of communication. It ensures that the target computer has admitted the established communication from the source computer. In this way, all communications are by the accept the source computer and are taking place, only to know or believe that from the previous communication link. In addition, stateful packet inspection firewall and more rigorous in their packet inspection. Stateful packet inspection firewall also closed the port until the connection is requested, authorized and acknowledged by the receiving computer. This allows an additional layer of protection of the threat port scan method, hackers used a computer to determine which service or application procedures are available to enter the host. Internet Connection Firewall Windows XP Windows XP provides Internet security posed by a new Internet Connection Firewall (ICF). ICF use of an active packet filtering, which means that the firewall ports are open, as long as necessary, to enable you to access your services interested in the type of technology prevents hackers from scanning your computers ports and resources. If you are an Internet conference organized by the company, ICF allows you to open holes in the firewall, so that traffic specific ports. This is the so-called port mapping. Hybrid Firewall A firewall is a hybrid combination of the two above-mentioned firewall. The first commercial firewall, 12-month stamp, is a mixed use development of the application gateway and packet filtering firewall. This type of firewall is the universal implementation of packet filtering, application gateway into the fast-opening of the new service access and private networks. Personal firewall software applications are usually the gateway firewall. The exception is products such as routers, like Linksys router, it contains a packet filtering firewall in them. The most important thing is to remember is that the firewall should be only part of the security system, private network or computer. Modern firewalls cannot protect the internal network or system from attacks, viruses, and previously unknown attacks, due to firewall technology is generally catch up and protection of known threats technologies. In order for your system (s) is absolutely safe continuous updates and other security methods will be implemented. Wire and Wireless Wire Wire use to interconnect devices. Network cables carry signals between computers, allowing them to communicate with one another. Type of wire Coaxial cable Twisted-pair cable, in unshielded and shielded varieties Fiber-optic cable Wireless Wireless network is defined as any type of computer network, wireless, and usually associated with telecommunications network interconnection between nodes in the implementation of non-use of wires. Wireless telecommunications networks generally implemented some type of remote information transmission system uses electromagnetic waves, such as radio waves, on the carrier to implement this project, usually occurs in the physical layer or layer of network. Type of wireless Wireless PAN Wireless MAN Wireless WAN Mobile devices network SUBJECT: Network Security 1.1) Feature of Windows and Linux Comparison between Microsoft Windows or Linux computer operating system is a common topic of discussion among users. While Linux is the most prominent free software operating system (although some components, such as its own, only the compiled binary drivers, is currently provided by the hardware maker, Windows on the most popular ever installation conditions of their own personal computer desktop operating system () is included in most Linux distributions) is. Both personal computer operating systems market only, not user-based competition, the market rivals in the server and embedded systems. The following reflects the comparison between three different families based on the Windows operating system, each with a different code base and design. These families are (1)Windows and Windows for Workgroups 3.1(based on DOS),Windows 95 and Windows 98 and ME, the old version is on longer for sale today(2) In the family, including Windows 2000, XP in, Vista, the 7, and Server 2003 and 2008. This run all Microsoft supported desktop and server computers today; (3) in the Windows Embedded family, including the two scaled-down versions of other Windows versions and specialized operating systems, such as the Windows CE-. In such relatively concentrated mainly in the New Territories family. Linux is available in many types of CPUs: IA 32 (i386 and later PC processor) is, x86 64 (64-bit PC processor and Intel Mac with most computers), Itanium-and MIPS, PowerPC for, ARMs include. However, only one of the first three, Windows NT kernel version of the current focus. CPU types for diversity, Linux is todays routers, set-top box, PDA and mobile phones as well as support for server and desktop applications detected. Is, Windows, POS terminals DOS beginning on the embedded market is a long history. Today is running under Windows CE megabytes of kernel memory, it is just one target no longer held in the computer [1] Microsoft will, Windows CE operating system on the core, AutoPC is, Windows Mobile, surname such as portable media center is based on many embedded platforms, many industrial and embedded systems. Power Windows and Dreamcast games to choose the CE. Microsoft Windows is a desktop PC market is about 90 percent of desktop market share and dominates in 2007, all servers (while not necessarily use). [About sales accounted for 66 percent required to edit] server revenue share in 2007 Q4 as, Microsoft Windows 36.3% and 12.7 percent in Linux [2] June 2009, Linux has The most powerful supercomputer in the world at 88.6% of the power [3] in December 2008, Linux hosting companies on the Internets most reliable power supply is 15, Windows than any of [4]. Linux and Microsoft Windows philosophy, cost, reliability, versatility and ease of use, to improve understanding of each region are different from the weak. Comparisons of the two operating systems tend to reflect their origins, historical user base and distribution model. To Van, MS Windows viruses, the major disadvantages general awareness and sensitivity on a regular basis often weak, the bulk of the Linux desktop box usability the market [citation needed out of the poor people], including the quotation as a huge market share, a malicious code, and can kill the lack of security features. [5] Advocates of free software, Linux is allowed to argue about the strength of the key users of freedom: To run the program free to [Linuxs] to study , it change and to enjoy the freedom to redistribute copies [and] to improve the program and release your improvements [6] Windows Embedded devices are often configured without disk storage and as the cause, The system does not allow the end may be set to close the extension of the user. Ciscos VPN-optimized routers provide scalability, routing, security and QoS (rvice their quality). According to Ciscos IOS (Internetwork Operating System) software, there is a through the central site VPN aggregation router, applicable in all situations, from the small-office/home-office (SOHO) access to the needs of large enterprises. 1.3) There are many common ways to install and run Ubuntu Linux system. You can run Ubuntu As the only operating system (single boot). In addition to other operating systems (dual boot). In your existing operating system (virtualization). See the installation options in a virtual environment Virtual Machines. From your CD-ROM drive, using the Live CD on. In addition to Windows, the use of the window boot manager, by installing Wubi Acquiring Ubuntu There are many ways to get the Ubuntu installation disk, these detailed GettingUbuntu page. If you plan to download and burn your own installation disc, please refer to BurningIsoHowto. To get Ubuntu, you can order a free CD or buy from a typical CD or DVD from a distributor you can also download and burn images to a CD or DVD. You can download a typical Ubuntu install. Download and install a program requires a blank CD or DVD, and CD or DVD burner can burn CD images. To download Ubuntu: Using the Web browser, navigate to the internet Select the desktop version, and then click Ubuntu 9.04. Select the download location in the vicinity of the menu; choose the location closest to you. Click to start the download. A pop-up window that prompts you to run or save the file. In Internet Explorer, click Run, to automatically open a CD burning tool or click the installation file to save the file to disk. In Mozilla Firefox, select Open and open the CD burning tool to install the file or choose to save the file to save the file to disk. After downloading the Ubuntu installation CD image, you need to burn it to CD or DVD. See above ISO disk image burning a detailed description of BurningIsoHowto. To burn the installation disc into the CD or DVD: Place a recordable CD or to your CD / DVD drive DVD. Load application, be able to burn. ISO image file to a CD or DVD Use your CD and DVD writer, the disk image copied to a blank CD or DVD. Ubuntu LAMP server Install the following Versions Ubuntu 9.10 (Karmic) Apache 2.2.12 Mysql 5.1.37 PHP 5.2.10 1.4) Cost associated with the performance, security, support, and maintenance of the Ubuntu What is Ubuntu? A complete desktop Linux operating system Ubuntu, a free community and professional support available. Communities struggling right enshrined in the Ubuntu Manifesto is built on the idea: software thats free software tool that people should be able to use their local language and despite any disabilities, and those people need freedom and justice must be able to meet their. I want to see how their software cannot be changed to. Ubuntus always free, will be free, Enterprise Edition for the additional costs we work best in such conditions, all free to use. Ubuntu, can be used very woobuntuhayeo translations and accessibility infrastructure that the free software community, including providing the best possible people. Stable and regular release cycle for Ubuntu is shipping a new release every 6 months will be shipped. You or the current development release you can use the current stable release. 18 months releases are supported. Ubuntus entirely open-source software development, is committed to the principles, we improve people pass it is recommended to use open source software. Ubuntu is suitable for use on desktops and servers. Current Ubuntu release, AMD64 at (hammer) and power (Apple iBook and Power book, G4 and the G5) architectures (Korea IBM-compatible PC) and is supported on Intel x86. Wu struggling software, more than 1,000 pieces of the Linux kernel version 2.6 and GNOME 2.16 start, and word processing and spreadsheet applications to access applications, web server software, email software, programming languages and tools and the Internet from any standard desktop Cover the application as well as a few games. Dell has cut the price of 50 U.S. dollars to personal computers pre-installed Ubuntu Linux operating system instead of Windows Vista. For example, laptop computers Inspiron 1420 (14.1-inch display, 80GB hard drive, 1GB of DDR2 memory) loaded with Ubuntu Linux now priced at 774, while the same laptop with Vista Home Basic Edition cost $ 824. A computer with Ubuntu pre-installed is only applicable to the United States. Prior to this, constant complaints, the users Idea Storm Web site, Ubuntu computer prices tend to the same Windows Vista-based computer. However, to save 50 U.S. dollars an Ubuntu computer is not enough to satisfy some Linux enthusiasts, who said, Dell can still do more. I think this is just Dells air. I fully agree with the first, but now the situation is clear, I would like to see it fall flat, Mike Dells face, complained surimi. I did not expect a price drop 200 U.S. dollars. I look forward to something, though along the line of 50 ~ 75. Dell decided to start providin g pre-installed Linux PC, after earlier this year launched Idea Storm Web sites recommendations. Just 11 days of the launch of IdeaStorm Web site, more than 83,000 users had requested that Dell offers Linux pre-installed on personal computers. DUX is ideal for data acquisition unit for real-time monitoring and control. Motherboard uses real-time speed and power USB port and is designed to work perfectly under Linux. This means that it is easy to program and works on embedded systems and desk top computers. The driver is part of the framework COMEDY, so it will work directly with Labview. Driver and firmware under the GPL. Encounter problems with data collection in Windows Vista? USBDUX and Ubuntu using the CD to collect data on the speed and reliability of Linux, and then return to Windows to use your favorite analysis software package all on your computer. Performance Currently the update 4 Linux 2.6.18 kernel based Optimized multicourse Maximum flexibility to continue to hardware support The development and performance tools, including System Tap SRIOV such as I / O performance and virtualization technologies, advanced Both physical and virtual system that support large SMP IPv4/IPv6 pieces offload and buffer management Dynamic per-conversion I queue / O, scheduler Kernel buffer to improve the adhesive power, I / O operations on the buffer Security During installation, the encryption of the users home directory can be set up. During installation, Ubuntu 9.10 encrypted home directory, now offers the option to set up. Skills are required eCryptfs, the home directory is located at the top of the stack, the encrypted file system as part came a few hours woobuntureului. However, the distribution of the desktop version of the users themselves previously had set up on the command line, and now, during the installation, all you need is a simple mouse click. From an existing installation, however, encrypted home directory from the command line to add new users in system management tool that also failed to provide relevant options can be enabled. Although still a standard Ubuntu 9.10 install a firewall a firewall is installed, start the UFS is incomplete, but during installation Developer version 9.10 does not include other security screw enhance: cups print server and the number of such applications, the log stated document viewers and various network tools, as well as the guest session (upper right corner of the menu) for a guest user preferences, temporary work is protected now by default AppArmor profile. Check the permissions of the process for AppArmor Profile: or where the process and can read and write files, whether the network has access to what, and so forth. For example, they have malicious code embedded in PDF files created specifically for immunization. While Firefox 3.5 includes a profile, it is not enabled by default. AppArmor also have some time, but only as part version 9.10 woobuntuneunui to leverage the security of large-scale expansion. In addition, the application profiles apparmor profiles can be added with the package. Maintenance In order to ensure that order is important that users are exposed to any frequency distribution, have access to the latest and greatest system and application software. However, it is all business for Interested in reducing the cost of power and flexibility of Linux, the period until the release. Update, maintain and even more important. Many hundreds of companies, there are thousands of systems or computer. Before, there are updates or new releases have to spend a lot of time testing a substantial business infrastructure can be deployed on the system to think about rolling them all into the computer system. After the test one time, a lot of time updating the physical act of deploying the system, in terms of money literally MIS, IT personnel converts. By default, each new release of Ubuntu security updates after the date of the release of 18 after being issued a month. On that day, but the existing security updates available, it is not guaranteed, new updates for it Release will be p rovided. Ubuntu commercial users long address, long-term requirements of the mark. Shuttle worth and Canonical, Ltd., and founder of Ubuntu Linux, which sponsored and funded the formation. Ubuntu Foundation in mid 2005. Ubuntu Foundation, part of the core Ubuntu community workers. Member, and successful, Ubuntu in order to guarantee the continuity of development and release process. Ubuntu is one of the Foundations commitments to further aspect of maintenance and updates. Ubuntu version 6.06, when this, Ubuntu Foundation is, Ubuntu version 6.06 is on the desktop for three years, five years on the server, the standard 18, the backbone support for last month commitment is two-fold support to benefit from then announced the first release of Ubuntu Linux is Ubuntu. Acronyms LTS, release numbers for long-term support has been added to highlight the fact. Development of hardware and open source, Ubuntu and given the pace of commitment and long-term maintenance of the regular release sche dule, Ubuntu users are always safe, they can help to ensure that the maximum stability and The latest version of the software depends. Also, Ubuntu has promised a corporate update and support is essential for the successful commercial adopt. Software and Hardware-Choices for VPN In the selection of software and hardware, there are many things to enter. VPN software for general-purpose configuration file server should be very cheap. In addition, the server must be a complete knowledge-based network. Security and vigilance should be used to check the unauthorized access. What is the choice of VPN software and VPN hardware and what things can be entered? More Articles cover choice of VPN software Client-server VPN server Hardware and VPN client software VPN and the choice depend on the type of VPN users. You need to select the VPN software requirements for many of the problems Whether the VPN software configuration a common file server cheaper? May be the correct protocol and application configuration, in my current system, to connect to the VPN? I should rely on routers and other dedicated hardware? To reduce costs is a plus; you already have an operating system, support for VPN. Most operating systems running on Windows software, the necessary capacity, configuration, and run a VPN. Each network is a unique and its own users and permissions set to make a VPN with your product evaluation of the infrastructure needs to make a choice. There are two types of network architecture, point-pairs, etc., or client-server. Peer-peer network to provide resources on the network and computing capacity of computers. As a network capacity needs, personal computers into the network between the nodes increases. This increases the robustness of the system and prevents failures. Client-Servers Client-server network architecture is one of the computers is to ask the supply of machines and the server machine. This two computers over a network connection or LAN or WAN. The client can deal with some or all of the application process. Server to maintain a database and processing client requests from the database to extract or update his database. To provide additional processing if the server is an application server. Server can be an ordinary personal computer host. In the LAN server performs various tasks. Of their file servers, printers, servers, mail servers, X computing servers, dedicated servers, database-specific server, the system starts and general purpose server computing File Server Management Working Group on the applications and data files, this may be the group shares. File server requires a network connection, and many slot large-capacities, fast hard disk subsystem. Calculation of the server application logic does not handle. It requires a lot of memory, high-performance features. Database server technology, the most typical use of client-server. In this mode, the server accepts requests for data from its search data in the database and the results passed back. Server requires depends on the size of the database, the number of users, network type, and with the speed of the database must be updated. Communication Server available to other LAN gateways, networks and computers. It can be used as an e-mail servers and Internet servers. It requires multiple slots, as well as a high-speed processors, network protocol translation The client-server system is mainly used in commercial applications, such as Financial and administrative procedures World Wide Web servers Video and document servers Online transaction processing Batch processing In the client-server applications to do most of the relationship between the client and the model is a master-slave configuration. The Internet has evolved in large part on the client server model. The user is still the client who is running the browser and server using the multi-tier architecture of the interconnected network of servers and database servers; we provide information in the form of HTML pages. VPN Server VPN server software and the VPN do not require Windows-based workstation or server operating system software, to add VPN functionality. As for other operating systems software to meet specific VPN function. Morton Bay PoPToP software can be converted into common PC based on any computer on the server. Many companies recognize that in building their own networks and other privileges and tasks of the architecture, the weakest link in security is a human who is not a complete knowledge of system security. Full knowledge of Web-based server (Intranet and Extranet) is needed. Use of existing user and group tasks and permissions. This simplifies management. Safety should be the worms, and other servers on the network attack system has many of the major factors The continuing need for vigilance because it is in the network and the access point at any time of attack a lot of compromises, almost the entire network. The routine checks the log file, you need to know your system from unauthorized access If you have a large number of customers, then a dedicated single-system VPN service is good or the companys other services on the network will slow down. Scalability is limited as compared to the extra hardware solutions. Windows NT Server 4.0 can only support 256 concurrent VPN tunnels See the purchase of additional software, if the VPN solution is a web-based server supports the operating system. VPN Client VPN client software is for small branch offices and home users. Many VPN clients available in the market. These depend on the machine configuration and the protocols they use. VPN client software is already part of many operating systems can also be made use of as a service pack. So that the network connection protocol can use VPN authentication and encryption to provide all you need to do. In the Point to Point Protocol (PPP) Point certification on the use of PPTP and L2TP. Point to Point Encryption Protocol (Microsoft Point to Point Encryption) is used for IPSec encryption for PPTP and L2TP use. Usually the client remote access VPNs. High-density and dial-up with the RADIUS (Remote Authentication Dial in User Service Integration), is by some software. A number of other software vendors to provide client-side Safe Nets VPN Client Software Electoral Affairs Commission (Extranet Access Client) Captivity Ciscos VPN client software for Linux, Win 95/98/98SE/NT/2K/ME/XP. The VPN 1 Check Point Secure Client Aurorean Client from Enterasys MovianVPN Software The Apple system software Net lock and OS / 2 systems, the basic firewall products for these In Joy. VPN hardware VPN hardware is dependent on the connection and installation sites. Low-cost VPN hardware at the client. Persistent organic pollutants (point-of-presence) is a high scalability, performance and integration, are expensive, usually more than 200 thousand U.S. dollars, and. Multi-port routers usually have a custom ASIC (application specific integrated circuit) and techniques to deal with enterprise business needs. These ASIC that can handle a large number of client-side loads, redundancy and load balancing. In this part of the equipment incorporates a higher safety standard (3DES) encryption and additional network protocols. Cisco VPN concentrator is a good example. And you may ask what the VPN concentrator is? Cisco VPN is based on wide-area network hardware is basically the company needs a large number of multiple connections. The VPN concentrator is on all over the Intranet or Internet connection and firewall routers work. The terminal (client devices) is sure to use the equipment and software is compatible with POP. These are more diversified and other Internet applications, enhanced and specialized gateway VPN router. Some terminals are complicated, and can be used as persistent organic pollutants equipment. Cisco, 3Com, Symantec, Linksys and other suppliers of equipment a combination of firewall, network address translation and VPN capabilities. Many of the hardware support and a web browser interface of the software, easy to use and hardware VPN client configuration.POP based equipment vendors and their product is described The commitment is to the VPN service provider for Internet business opportunities. They provide VPN services, remote access client types. The ISP basically is to provide you with a connection to let you different throughput. Several companies are providing facilities to set up and VPN connections VPN is to become a professional services and enterprise options, which is not earlier than to provide them. Database server Database server supply the server side of client server applications, and often the data That goes along with them to network clients. A database server, for instance, not only supplies query-processing and data-analysis functions, but also acts as a repository for the huge amounts of data often stored in a database. Application server differ from basic file and print servers by providing processing services as well as handling requests for file or print services. In file and print services, the client does its own file handling and print processing. Generally, clients must run specialized client-side applications (or plug-ins to other applications) to communicate with an application server. For these applications, typically the client side formulates requests and ships them to the application server, which handles the entire requests background recessing and those delivers the results back to the client side. The client side then formats and displays these results to the user. Micro soft SQL Server delivers complex client/server application support that run-on Windows Server 2000/2003, Net Ware, and many flavors of UNIX, including Linux. A popular public-license database server called MySQL is available for most versions of Windows, Linux, and NetWare, among other operating systems. Firewall A firewall provides a strong barrier between your private network and the Internet. You can set firewalls to restrict the number of open ports, what types of packets are passed through and which protocols are allowed through. Some VPN products, such as Ciscos 1700routers, can be upgraded to include firewall capabilities by running the appropriate Cisco IOS on them. You should already have a good firewall in place before you implement a VPN, but a firewall can also be used to terminate the VPN sessions. VPN Tunnel VPN Tunneling is a network technology that encapsulates packets at the same level or below. One type of packet is encapsulated within the datagram (packet in TCP/IP or UDP containing source and destination address) of a different protocol. Since multiple protocols are pushed through a given network it is said to tunnel. Multiple Protocols that support encryption and authentication make up a Virtual Private Network. Tunneling is used to transport a network protocol through a network; which it normally does not support. A VPN tunnel software has a management protocol that creates maintains and terminates a tunnel. After the VPN tunnel is established data can be sent. How does tunneling work? A client or server uses the data transfer protocol to prepare the data transfer. Data is transferred through the VPN tunnel using a datagram based protocol. When a tunnel session is created both end points must agree to various parameters such as address assignment, encryption or compression parameters. PPTP-Point to point tunneling protocol/L2TP-Layer 2 Tunneling protocol encapsulates private network traffic in packets to be transmitted over public networks (TCP/IP). The tunnel thus does three things It creates and maintains a virtual link. Encrypts and decrypts data to reduce snooping by others It guarantees the authenticity of the sender and receiver ISP An ISP (Internet Service Provider) is a personal and other companys access to the Internet and other related services, including web site construction, the virtual host. Internet service providers have access to equipment and communication lines must have is that on the Internet there are the geographical regional services. The larger Internet service providers have their own high-speed, so they are less dependent on the telecommunication providers that can provide better services to their customers. One of the biggest national and regional Internet service provider AT T World Net, IBMs global network, microwave communication Netcom, UUNET companies, and PSINet. Internet service providers also include regional providers such as New England and San Francisco Bay Area NEARNet Barnet. They also include thousands of local suppliers. In addition, Internet users can access through online service providers (OSP), such as America Online and CompuServe. The larger Internet service providers to connect with each other through business associations, etc. (ISP exchange of MCI Communications Corporation Operations Center) or a similar center. That to make arrangements for the exchange of traffic is known as right and other agreements. There are several very comprehensive lists of suppliers world-wide on the web. Internet service providers are sometimes referred to as an IAP (Internet access provider). ISP is sometimes used as independent service providers differentiate service providers abbreviation is an independent, separate company from the telephone company. ADSL Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) a digital telecommunication technology that uses different speeds for downloading and uploading data. ADSL is ideal for home internet users because the bulk of traffic in this connection travels in the download direction. VPN- Virtual private Networking Virtual Network (VPN) of the private networks are used more and more since 1997, allows businesses to connect a separate local area network (LAN), and the establishment of wide area network (WAN), created with suppliers, or to provide secure remote access to extranet. A VPN is secure, with two or more private communications equipment in the tunnel over public networks (such as the Internet). These VPN devices can be VPN software running on the computer or special equipment, such as a VPN-capable router. It makes your home computer to connect to your office network or allow in different places, two home computers connected to each via the Internet. Even if the VPN, the data on the Internet as a public network transmission, it is safe, because the strong encryption. If someone listening to the VPN communications, they will not understand, because all data is encrypted. In addition, virtual private network is very complicated method of monitoring to ensure that will never change, while data transmitted through the public network packet traffic. Data encryption and authentication are very CPU-intensive. Clients and Servers VPN server is a hardware or software, can act as a gateway for the whole network or a computer. It is generally forever and VPN client to connect to listen to it. VPN client is the most common form of software, but can also be hardware. The client to start a please to the server and logs. Then, the client computer can communicate with the servers network. They are in the same virtual network. Many broadband routers from your LAN can pass in one or more of the VPN session to Internet. Each router to deal with this difference. VPN Software Virtual Private Network server software is rare. This level of Windows Server operating system Windows 2000 Servers there VPN server built in, I know that if there is no software products for the home or small business, so you can create a VPN server price. VPNs client-side software more common. When your computer loads, the software allows you to create a secure VPN tunnel across the Internet and in accordance with VPN server in front of another network. VPN Languages There are two languages or agreement, VPN statement. Microsoft to use PPTP or Point to Point Tunneling Protocol ** and most other people use IPSec Internet Protocol Security. Most broadband routers can forward the PPTP port 1723 IPSec traffic, but more complex. If you do not explicitly support the IPSec router through, then even if you will be in the demilitarized zone of the computer may not work correctly. PPTP has a good encryption and also has a certification, in order to verify the user name and password. IPSec encryption is a simple model is more secure, but does not include the verification process. The third standard, L2TP, and IPSec authentication and built-in. VPN Hardware (Routers with VPN Servers) Until recently, VPN servers hardware is very expensive. As home networks become more complex, the family-level VPN increases in demand. As of the end of 2001, home networking industry in response to adding some broadband routers, VPN servers. These products are often priced less than 300 dollars (us), some 170 U.S. dollars as cheap. VPN functionality is very processor-intensive and in most broadband routers is a bit slow, their processors. Broadband Router VPN server is often limited because they are the throughput of the microprocessor. Most of around 0.6 Mbps or 600Kbps maximum VPN throughput. SUBJECT: Network Security What is an ISP (Internet Service Provider)? An ISP (Internet Service Provider) is a personal and other companys access to the Internet and other related services, including web site construction, the virtual host. Internet service providers have access to equipment and communication lines must have is that on the Internet there is the geographical regional service. The larger Internet service providers have their own high-speed, so they are less dependent on the telecommunication providers that can provide better services to their customers. One of the biggest national and regional Internet service provider AT T World Net, IBMs global network, microwave communication Netcom, UUNET companies, and PSINet. Internet service providers also include regional providers such as New England and San Francisco Bay Area NEARNet Barnet. They also include thousands of local suppliers. In addition, Internet users can access through online service providers (OSP), such as America Online and CompuServe. The larger Internet service providers to connect with each other through business associations, etc. (ISP exchange of MCI Communications Corporation Operations Center) or a similar center. That to make arrangements for the exchange of traffic is known as right and other agreements. There are several very comprehensive lists of suppliers world-wide on the web. Internet service providers are sometimes referred to as an IAP (Internet access provider). ISP is sometimes used as independent service providers differentiate service providers abbreviation is an independent, separate company from the telephone company. The easiest way to find and determine whether youre ISP offers free service. Provide a list of all of the following services / are supported by this agreement. Other services and support, which implied that what is outlined in this document, or will be available outside. Hardware configuration of four (4) in / out of the Institutional Revolutionary Partys bimodal high density polyethylene device tree. 3000 DID Number 4 (4) provided through the trunk In the elevator 50 3 911 location of phone service and blue light Update PS / Ali University Police Department (UPDs) 53 (53) for the 911 emergency number 100 megabit Internet service provider (ISP) network of tunnels, residential buildings and related businesses. Burst speed, 200 megabits. Campus Connection from home village, but remain behind the firewall university campus in the village of optical fiber is placed in a dedicated run from ISP Description of services Hardware one (4) equipment telephone campus between is carrier (SBC) inbound village with / outbound PRI is circuit four providing possible configurations one. This apparatus west Joe 1.2 providing connections to villages campuses only Hall. University Computing and Communications (UCAT) Private Switch / Automatic Location Identification (the PS / ALI) of the 50 UPD (53) in an emergency to a permanent position is in an elevator, blue light emergency position Install the update information to maintain a record of three. These locations, emergency housing, permanent change, except that the UPD is not specified in the indicated location. Update, update on a quarterly basis, special UPD have been determined to be an emergency and to move the location of existing / additional / must be changed. UCAT 2, the bank is delivered through four PRI trunks; Joe West for 1.2 to provide a number of distributions in the hole, the user MPOE, and 3000 DID exit the housing delivery staff. ISP service provides a maximum of 200MB. IP address space 130.65.210 130.65.218 (existing 9 networks) 130.65.240 130.65.251 (12 total new network) will be assigned. 130.65.252 will be reserved for the expansion of the network. Network 130.65.168.0/130.65.209.0 24 range /24 will be retained to provide continuity of existing housing in the range of business services. The end of the campus core router to connect universities outside the firewall housing. Free access to the ISP, to provide a new Internet. Kyanpasufaiauoru connection at both ends within the housing management. ISP, the university does not guarantee a connection to secure a place on the network connection. Including the placement of a separate document of guidelines to met end user needs to be done by the university to provide access to housing. Differentiated levels of service are; Improved profitability: EUnet service differentiation, which is expected to gain new customers. Expanding on the same network, and was hoping to be able to support subscribers yet Call center, processing, without adding additional staff to the customer, infrastructure, service requests. In order to improve the overall customer experience: Experience can be optimized for each user. Also includes the online network, allowing users to easily service requirements, the necessary. Take advantage of the configuration file to change the tariffs and services, the time limit for road Promotional offers, providing feedback to marketing and support team. To provide testing services for customers in the future: Customers can EUnet core competitor; the company is expected to test a broadband connection to attract new users. In the integration of existing back-office systems: It also requires management costs. Location information and billing system integration solutions. Cost of Repair Service Fee for all non-covered mobile / Add / Change / Maintenance Services $ 72.00 per hour. Conclusion Diplomatic Conference on the rights and the ISP are not responsible for copyright, a clear layout, the user can access or use. The Council shall be seven, if you want to delete to delete the language to create a great ambiguity of the mechanism of the above, the supplier of the authors rights have been violated to use. Providers have agreed to communicate, To provide communications facilities, an important victory in the amount of understanding of ourselves. Berne Protocol and the liabilities of the actual situation of the access provider, we recommend that if you have a limited understanding of the best ISP can be to give priority to the rights of authors of the historical limitations. The many emerging complexities of the National Assembly and the courts to re-appear in the session. Can easily be subject to legal restrictions, and no one way transmitted over the Internet. ISP to be able to access a Web page to provide, post, email, chat rooms and use, to provide users with an interactive environment for the evolution of the host. Internet service providers user equipment supply network, providing a wide range of applications. In order to promote the role of ISP in a variety of applications depends on the application, user and ISP. All forms can be copied to the authors, vendors do not have to establish a limited liability, fundamental rights, expand the blanket could change the Internet. Some in Hollywood in the 21st Century Theater to the ISP, you can view all of charging an entrance fee. But it is to understand us; this is death and Internet experience. Compromise, the U.S. House of Representatives in May, was established in 1996, it is intolerable for the ISP d oes not cause the debt, and you can prove that the right words in order to protect the copyright owner. In the ISP, balanced international agreements, contribute to the formation of the ISP space legislation process rights and responsibilities of the National Assembly. Now, ISP is time to start working at the national level, legislation like that. Trojan horse A program or utility, it seems to be false, such as the screen saver or a useful tool. However, once installed, it is in the background, such as allowing other users access to your computer or from your computer send information to another computers functionality. Whats a Trojan horse virus? A is a Trojan horse virus; e-mail attachments are usually released. If the user opens, will scour any personal and financial information on your hard drive, such as your social security, account and password. Once you have the information collection, sent to a thiefs database. There are several different types of Trojan horses. These include: Remote Access Trojans (RAT), backdoor Trojans (backdoors), IRC Trojan (IRCbots) Trojan horses and key loggers. Many Trojan horses, including many types. For example, a Trojan can be to install key loggers and backdoors. Stadium will be combined with a backdoor Trojan horse and RAT is usually created by zombie networks are a collection of infected computers. Protection from Trojan Horses Most Trojans are transmitted through the Internet services, including e-mail, web site online, file-sharing systems, and instant messages. Therefore, any computer connected to the Internet is running the risk of a Trojan horse virus. Avoid open to all executable (. Exe) file will be a definite fire way to avoid being a Trojan horse virus. Unfortunately, the executable file is essential to run the program and the majority of computer users can not simply avoid all. Exe file. For from the Trojans and other malicious software, there are potentially dangerous executable files protection should scan anti-virus software. As its name implies, a Trojan horse can be sneaky, users usually, unknowingly download a malicious Trojan horse. When this happens, anti-virus software can detect and remove these Trojans attempt to launch an unsuspecting users computer viruses, worms and other malicious software. Top anti-virus solutions include: McAfee software, Norton Software, Computer Associates and AVG. Recovering from a Trojan horse or Virus Michael Durkota and Will Dormann it can happen to anyone. Taking into account viruses and Trojan horses on the Internet at any time traversing the huge number, but surprisingly this will not happen to everyone. May decide later you can do to better protect them, but this does not help your current predicament you. Once you know your computer to install a Trojan horse or virus infection (or if your machine to show unexpected behavior, you suspect something is wrong), how do you do? If you have any specific malicious programs from infecting your computer, you can visit a number of anti-virus Web sites, download removal tool. Opportunities, but you cannot determine the specific procedures. Unfortunately, your other choice is limited, but the following steps can help save your computer and documents. Call IT support if you have an IT support department at your disposal, immediately notify them and in accordance with their instructions. Disconnected depending on the Trojan or virus on your computer you enter the Internet, intruders can access your personal information and could even use your computer to attack other computers. You can turn off your Internet connection to stop this activity. The best way to do this is to physically disconnect your cable or telephone lines, but you can also simply disable your network connection. Backup at this point is a good idea to take the time to back up files of important documents. If possible, compile your photos, documents, Internet Favorites, and all other, and burn them to CD or DVD, or save them to the other external storage devices. This is very important to note that these files cannot be trusted because they are still likely to be infected. (In fact, this is a good practice on a regular basis the backup files, so that if they are infected, you might have a non-infected setting can be resumed.) Scan your machine because your computer (including the operating system) may be infected with malicious programs, it is the most secure scanning live CD (or rescue of the CD, rather than the previously installed anti-virus program) machine. Many anti-virus products offer this functionality. Another method is to use Web-based virus removal services, a number of anti-virus software vendors (and try to online virus scan search). Or you could just try to Microsofts Web-based microprocessor-based protection scan. The next best course of action is the installation of an uncontaminated source, such as the CD ROM on the anti-virus program. If you do not have one, there are many to choose from, but they should provide the necessary tools. After you install the software, complete scan of your computer. The initial scan is expected to identify malicious one (group). Ideally, anti-virus program, even willing to remove from the computer of malicious files, according to your suggestions or instru ctions. If the success of anti-virus software to locate and delete the malicious file be sure to follow the steps 7, preventive measures to prevent re-infection. If, unfortunately, anti-virus software cannot find or remove malicious programs, you must follow the steps 5 and 6. If the previous steps to re-install fail to clean your computer, the most effective option is to eliminate the operating system or format the hard disk and reinstall the operating system. Although this corrective action will also lead to all programs and documents the loss, it is the only way to ensure that your computer is free from backdoors and intruder changes. Many computer makers offer a rescue partition or disk (twist), will make plant recovery system. Check your computers user manual to determine whether one of them is how to provide and run it. Prior to re-install, so that all programs and settings of your statement, so that you can return your computer to its original state. It is vital that you re-install anti-virus software and applying any patches may be available. Consultation , and then connect a new computer for further assistance, the Internet. Restore your files if you have a backup in step 3, you can now restore your files. Pre-placed in the files in the directory on your computer, you should scan their anti-virus software checks for known viruses. Protect your computer. In order to prevent future infections, you should take the following measures: Do not open unsolicited e-mail attachments. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Do not follow unsolicited links. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Maintain updated anti-virus software. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Use Internet firewalls. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Secure web browser. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Keep your system patched. Worm First developed by Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, John Shock and Jon Hepp in 1978, the worm is a destructive software program containing the code to a computer or network access to a computer or network capacity, and once the root causes of a computer or network hazards, delete, modify, distribute, or otherwise manipulate the data. To write more than a short time, the worm is a disc type, can be written, and then read the time. See CD-ROM ? for more information. Who recently installed an updated version of a program, or re-install a procedure that requires Internet access may experience with Symantecs Norton antivirus software, the users problems, constantly opening up, asked whether the Internet should be allowed or blocked. This issue occurs because Norton increase the competence in the same program multiple instances. To resolve this problem, follow these steps. Right-Norton in the task bar, then click on the icon click Norton Anti-virus option Option-click the Norton Antivirus Internet Worm Protection. Next, click Program Control Find the control program in the program, leading to your problem, highlighting the program, and remove from the list, click OK to any other copies. When you are prompted to re-allow the program to allow or deny the program, you should not be prompted. Virus A software program, first written in 1982, who was 15-year-old high school student Rich Skrenta, Known as the elk cloned spread of this virus to monitor the floppy disk drive and copies itself to any floppy disk is inserted into the computer in the other computers. Once they are infected can infect all floppy disks inserted into each infected per infected floppy disk and then inserted into the computer on other computers. One is infected will also be displayed in the first 50 to start the computer for each poem. Fred Cohen in 1983, created in 1984 after the research paper of the term virus as a computer program, you can influence by modifying the way, but other computer programs, to include a (possibly evolved) copy of itself. Today, the computer virus is a software program, script or macro is designed to be infected, destroy, modify, or cause the computer or software programs other issues. Users can protect themselves and remove any viruses on your computer by installing anti-virus protection program, which aims to detect, protect and remove any computer viruses. List of Virus Antivirus, Boot sector virus, CMOS virus, Companion virus, Executable virus, Hoax, Intruder, Logic bomb, Macro virus, MBR virus, Multipart virus, Nonresident virus, Overwrite virus, Polymorphic virus, Resident virus, Stealth virus, Trojan horse, Vaccine, Security definitions, Worm. 3.2) Network security policy for companies Data protection framework, backup programs, virus protection, policy, and disaster recovery. Auditing policies, explained the safety requirements, or violations, verification, consequences of the act way. Access policy, specifying how and when to allow users to access network resources. Policy should be that there are two on-site and remote accesses the network. Internet use policies, explain what right or inappropriate Internet resources is. Certification policy, describes how to identify their users to access network resources. Login name, password and authentication methods should be described in the Convention. acceptable use policy, to explain what is the purpose of network resources can be used Privacy Policy describes the employees, customers and business partners can be expected that the monitoring and reporting network. REFERENCE https://www.redhat.com/rhel/desktop/ https://www.h-online.com/open/features/What-s-new-in-Ubuntu-9-10-846772.html https://tech.blorge.com/Structure:%20/2007/07/04/dell-cuts-price-of-ubuntu-linux-pcs/ https://www.vpntools.com/vpntools_articles/vpn-software.htm https://www.banquecentrale.gov.sy/about/VPN-eg.htm https://www.ip-adress.com/isp/ https://www.computerhope.com/jargon/t/trojhors.htm https://antivirus.about.com/b/2006/05/31/whats-a-trojan-horse-virus.htm https://articles.winferno.com/antivirus/trojan-horse/ https://www.us-cert.gov/reading_room/trojan-recovery.pdf https://www.computerhope.com/jargon/t/trojhors.htm https://www.computerhope.com/issues/ch000656.htm https://www.computerhope.com/jargon/v/virus.htm

Words in College Essays

Words in College Essays August 8 Theres an interesting article in Business Insider on the power of certain words in college essays. At Ivy Coach, we love data. We consider ourselves to be the purveyors of Ivy League admissions data. Nowhere will you find more comprehensive information on admissions statistics than on Ivy Coachs website. And were always intrigued by a Moneyball approach to highly selective college admissions. After all, its an approach that has worked successfully in a number of fields from baseball to finance to medicine and so many fields in between.  Brian of our firm has even made the case that the business of television would be better served with a data-driven, Moneyball approach. So it was with great interest that we read a piece in Business Insider written by Abby Jackson entitled To score an acceptance into Harvard or Stanford, you might want to use these words in your admission essay. We of course were a bit skeptical upon reading the articles title, but there is some fun information in the piece. Should it in any way influence how a student goes about writing his or her Personal Statement for Harvard or Stanford? Absolutely not. But its intriguing nonetheless. As referenced in the piece in Business Insider, The words cancer, difficult, hard, and tough were more common in essays at Harvard, while happy, passion, better, and improve were more common at Stanford, according to Fast Company. Thats truly interesting to us. But does that mean that you should insert words like hard or tough in your Personal Statement as you seek to gain admission to Harvard? No. That would be utterly ridiculous. As would inserting words like cancer in your Personal Statement as you seek to gain admission to Stanford. We advise students to just write great essays and worry not about incorporating words like these. But we think the finding is interesting nonetheless! It simply has no practical application to highly selective college admissions. And, for regular readers of our college admissions blog, they know that the best college essays are about absolutely nothing! We do mean it.

The Policies Of The United States During The Period

The policies of the United States during the period 1898-1936 regarding latin america can be broadly covered in phases; the first phase: Big Stick Diplomacy 1898- 1909, the second phase known as Dollar Diplomacy from 1909- 1913, the third phase called missionary diplomacy from 1913- 1921 and finally the fourth phase known and the good neighbor policy 1933- 1936. These four policies had a great impact on not only the landscape of latin america but on the future of the United States in the region. Starting in 1898 we see a shift from the US being solely isolationist to a desire for the United States to become a more imperial power. this can most famously be seen in the annexation of Cuba and the Philippines during the spanish-american war , spurred by the success of their victory is against the Spanish the United States desired the further extend its power and strength in the Latin American region. With the election of Theodore Roosevelt in 1901 A foreign policy known as Big Stick diplomacy was implemented, in layman s terms this effectively means that the United States would use his show of force to ensure that is strategic for and objectives were accomplished in Latin America. the United States had a history starting with the Monroe Doctrine of a certain influence in Latin America; Roosevelt added a portion appropriately titled the Roosevelt Corollary in 1904. The Roosevelt Corollary represented a shift in the United States’ foreign policy, from now on the United Sta tesShow MoreRelatedWorld War II : The Great People s War1529 Words   |  7 PagesGreat People’s War) was of deep importance to the formation of today’s international relations system, however the following periods after this war between the greatest powers in the world are also of great significance. The analysis of those periods and their impact on world history will be the first approach of this assessment. 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The Bug in Black Hole - 1691 Words

The teens who occupy Charles Burnss graphic novel Black Hole are ill with what seem to be a sexually-transmitted disease that the teens identify as the bug, an increasing number of teens become infected and reside with a group of teenagers that live in separate from their families and individuals uninfected remain students at their high school in uptown Seattle. The ill teens dwell in a tent village concealed in the outskirts of their community, in the forest and they manage to survive largely on the trash and infrequent aid of the well teens. The sickness marks each teen in varying degrees; many seem grotesque while others physical manifestations are subtle, as a result the ill are alienated and rejected by the community because of†¦show more content†¦Teens typically, feel rejected by their peers and intern isolates himself or herself from the rest of the world in order to cope and deal with stigmatism. Since Chris’s mother was going to take her to the doctor and Chris knew she had the bug she didn’t want her mother to know so she runaway. This communicates to the reader the incidence of runaway teens and the fear of talking to their parents about issues they are going through. The bug The characters infected with the â€Å"bug† felt rejected their former peers because of their unconscious transition from adolescence to young adulthood: â€Å"‘I don’t know what it was†¦but suddenly we were the target of every asshole joke in town. They’d drive around searching for us at night, ganging up on us when we were out trying to find food. They did everything they could to make our lives as miserable as possible’† (no. 9). â€Å"‘Sometimes we made jokes about it†¦but it was no joke - we were scared shitless’† (no. 5). The â€Å"bug†, instead of inflicting typical disease related attribute, like pain or death, the illness causes unstable levels of freakish malformations. Unlike AIDS, however, the teen plague in Black Hole results in physical mutations, though these are not always easily observable by other people; For example, Eliza develops a miniature tail, Rob a mouth on his chest, and other characters bud grotesque mutations on the face and body. They are likeShow MoreRelatedBlack Holes Paper : Black Hole Paper1378 Words   |  6 PagesBlack Hole Paper Many philosophers have said that the ‘Eyes are the windows to the soul.’ The eyes can show a person’s true personality. Not their clothes, facial expressions, or how they hold themselves, but looking into another’s eyes will show one’s soul. But what if their personality was not found in their eyes, but on their body in the form of a mutation? As found in Black Hole, the town’s teens have contracted an STD they call â€Å"the bug.† Each teen that acquires it grows an external mutationRead MoreThe Eyes Are The Windows Of The Soul1360 Words   |  6 Pagestheir clothes, facial expressions, or how they hold themselves, but looking into another’s eyes will show one’s soul. But what if their personality was not found in their eyes, but in the form of a mutation? As found in Black Hole, the town’s teens have contracted an STD they call â€Å"the bug.† Each teen that acquires it grows an external mutation. This is especially found in some of the main characters: Keith, Rob, and Chris. Keith grows appendages that look like tadpoles on his chest. Rob has another mouthRead MoreExternal Mutations Of Keith, Rob, And Chris1375 Words   |  6 Pagesfacial expressions, or how they hold themselves, but looking into another’s eyes will show one’s soul. 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The Declaration of Independence - 1186 Words

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Sex Roles A Journal of Research Essay Example For Students

Sex Roles: A Journal of Research Essay Advertisings effects on mens gender role attitudes. Jennifer Garst; Galen V. Bodenhausen. Authors Abstract: COPYRIGHT 1997 Plenum Publishing Corporation We posited that media images of men influence the gender role attitudes that men express soon after exposure to the images. A total of 212 men (87% European American, 7% Asian or Asian American, 3% African American, and 3% other) viewed magazine advertisements containing images of men that varied in terms of how traditionally masculine vs. gynous they were and whether the models were the same age or much older than the viewers. Men who had initially been less traditional espoused more traditional attitudes than any other group after exposure to traditionally masculine models, although they continued to endorse relatively nontraditional views after exposure to androgynous models. These findings suggest that nontraditional mens gender role attitudes may be rather unstable and susceptible to momentary influences such as those found in advertising. Full Text: COPYRIGHT 1997 Plenum Publishing Corporation In the average American household, the television is turned \on\ for almost seven hours each day, and the typical adult or child watches two to three hours of television per day. It is estimated that the average child sees 360,000 advertisements by the age of eighteen (Harris, 1989). Due to this extensive exposure to mass media depictions, the medias influence on gender role attitudes has become an area of considerable interest and concern in the past quarter century. Analyses of gender portrayals have found predominantly stereotypic portrayals of dominant males and nurturant females within the contexts of advertisements (print and television), magazine fiction, newspapers, child-oriented print media, textbooks, literature, film, and popular music (Busby, 1975; Durkin, 1985a; Leppard, Ogletree, Wallen, 1993; Lovdal, 1989; Pearson, Turner, Todd-Mancillas, 1991; Rudman Verdi, 1993; Signorielli Lears, 1992). Most of the research to date on the effects of gender-role images in the media has focused primarily on the female gender role. A review of research on men in the media suggests that, except for film literature, the topic of masculinity has not been addressed adequately (Fejes, 1989). Indeed, as J. Katz (1995) recently noted, \there is a glaring absence of a thorough body of research into the power of cultural images of masculinity\ (p. 133). Katz suggests that studying the impact of advertising represents a useful place to begin addressing this lacuna. Of the few existing studies, a longitudinal content analysis of nine magazines in 1959, 1969, and 1979, found that advertisements featuring men are slowly moving toward decreased gender role stereotyping. However, in traditionally male magazines such as Esquire and Field Stream, the proportion of advertisements depicting men in \manly\ activities did not decrease as much as it did in traditionally female and general interest magazines (Skelly Luridstrom, 1981; see also England Gardner, 1983). In fact, Jacobson and Mazur (1995) posit that current advertising promotes a \masculine ideal\ that encourages men to \exude an aura of physical strength, power, dominance, and detachment\ and to \repress, and loath, their feminine traits (such as vulnerability and compassion)\ (p. Thus, although there may be some trends toward less stereotypic images of masculinity in advertising in some print genres, the traditional, agentic man is still a ubiquitous positive cultural representation. GENDER-ROLE ATTITUDES AS TEMPORARY CONSTRUCTIONS Although media researchers have typically been interested in relatively enduring attitudinal consequences of media exposure, recent research suggests it may be mo re fruitful to focus on the short-term impact of viewing media depictions. Wilson and Hodges (1992; see also Schwarz Bless, 1992a) proposed that individuals attitudes can vary, depending on the current context and the information that is salient in it. For instance, research has shown that incidental exposure to a well-liked African American celebrity, such as Oprah Winfrey or Michael Jordan, can influence subsequently reported racial attitudes (Bodenhausen, Schwarz, Bless, Wanke, 1995). Likewise, Schwarz and Bless (1992b) have found that activating thoughts about politicians who had been involved in a scandal influenced respondents subsequent evaluations of politicians trustworthiness in general, as well as the trustworthiness of specific politicians. It is thus quite plausible that mediated exemplars can have at least a transitory impact on social beliefs and attitudes. For many relatively complex attitudinal topics, including gender role attitudes, people are likely to possess a mixture of relevant knowledge and beliefs, not all of which are mutually compatible (Wilson Hodges, 1992; Smith, 1992). The attitude that one holds at any given time will depend in part on which subset of information is most salient at the moment. Although these context-induced attitudinal shifts may not always be of great magnitude, they indicate that attitudes are relatively dynamic entities. Rather than simply residing in some fixed form in memory, they appear to be constructed \on the fly,\ at least in part, on the basis of currently salient considerations. Shifts in attitudes would be expected to be particularly noticeable when greater ambiguity or ambivalence characterizes the issue in question. In contemporary society, messages about appropriate standards for male behavior are mixed at best. Some socializing influences emphasize the importance of traditionally masculine, agentic qualities, while others emphasize the desirability of developing the communal side of the male psyche. It is thus quite plausible that for many men, attitudes about appropriate male behavior are based on somewhat conflicting ideas and prescriptions. For this reason, these attitudes may be susceptible to momentary influences that emphasize either more traditional or less traditional images of masculinity. Schwarz and Bless (1992a) offer an \inclusion/exclusion model\ to study the context dependency of attitudinal judgments. Applied in the current context, the model implies that when viewers see media images of men, their subsequent judgments about the male role may be assimilated toward that particular media image if the viewers incorporate the image into their current understanding, or representation, of the male role. However, if the viewers exclude a certain male media image from their gender-role representations, the viewers judgments will either not be affected by the media image at all, or they will use the media image as a standard of comparison against which other attitudinally relevant information will be contrasted. Thus, for example, the behavior of a male exemplar who is seen as too feminine might be excluded from the mental representation a viewer forms of the male role. Moreover, judgments of role-appropriate behavior may actually become more traditionally masculine, if this atypical exemplar is used as a standard of comparison. Whether individuals include or exclude a particular exemplar from their representations of the male role will depend on a number of factors, including the width or breadth of the individuals representations. As the width of viewers representations of the male role increases, it becomes more likely that they will assimilate available male media models into their representations of the male role. Lastly, it is important to note that media depictions will only influence viewers subsequent judgments if the depictions are sufficiently different from the viewers previously held representations. If the media representations are largely consistent with the viewers prior understanding of the male role, then the images should produce no impetus for viewers to change their representations (or judgments based on them). FACTORS MODERATING THE IMPACT OF MEDIA EXEMPLARS Although it appears that media images can influence viewers attitudes (e. g. Gels, Brown, Jennings (Walstedt), Porter, 1984), it is also clear that not all viewers are uniformly affected. Durkin (1985b), in an extensive review of television and gender-role acquisition, has criticized previous research for failing to take into account how much variability there is in how viewers respond to messages or images in the mass media. According to Durkin, most research on the impact of gender roles only looks at the overall impact of the medium but does not investigate the individual difference variables that may moderate this impact. Lending support to Durkins view is a study of racial attitudes showing that viewers preexisting attitudes moderated their reactions to a television program. In an investigation of reactions to the character of Archie Bunker in \All in the Family,\ it was found that high-prejudice as compared with low-prejudice white viewers tended to identify more with the character of Archie Bunker, saw him as winning rather than as ridiculed, and saw nothing wrong with his use of racial and ethnic slurs (Vidmar Rokeach, 1974). Prior Male Gender Role Attitude We predict that the impact of male media models will be moderated by the male gender role attitudes of the viewers. For instance, it has been found that boys and girls with feminine preferences tend to identify more with a male counter-stereotypical portrayal than do masculine children (Eisenstock, 1984). Although less traditional men hold less traditional attitudes, they are also part of a culture that responds positively to men displaying masculine gender role behaviors and negatively to men displaying feminine gender role behaviors. In fact, Kanner, (1990, May 21) suggests that men are not willing to give up their traditionally masculine style to become \domesticated wimps\ (p. 20). To support her argument, she cited Barbara Durham, associate director of consumer resources for a large advertising firm, as saying \roles are changing, but we found its important not to rob men of their masculinity\ (p. 20). One possible implication of this state of affairs is that compared to men with traditional attitudes toward the male gender role, less traditional men may have rather wide representations of the male role, incorporating both traditional and nontraditional elements. As such, less traditional mens gender role attitudes may be relatively less stable and more susceptible to momentary influences such as those found in advertising, because of the greater complexity and breadth of their attitudes. Traditional men, on the other hand, may have relatively more narrow and sharply defined images of the male role, and they may therefore exclude from their mental representations any exemplars who do not fit this narrow conception. If so, it should be the case that the attitudes of more traditional men are less affected by momentary influences, because they are only likely to incorporate into their models of masculinity those exemplars who are already fairly consistent with their more narrow world view. Moreover, research suggests that traditional or conservative thought is associated with more authoritarian personality characteristics (Dillehay, 1978; Duncan, Peterson, Winter, 1997) and that, in turn, authoritarian individuals respond defensively to counter-attitudinal information. Research by D. Katz (1960) indicates that ego defensiveness is a major obstacle to attitude change, and indeed, Wagman (1955) found that counter-attitudinal information had a boomerang effect of making authoritarian people even more prejudiced. Likewise, the gender schema literature suggests that highly gender-typed individuals may respond negatively to deviations from the normative standard (Ruble and Stangor, 1986). Signorella and Liben (1984) found that highly stereotyped children recalled more traditional than nontraditional pictures and more often reconstructed nontraditional pictures as traditional rather than the reverse. Thus, for a variety of reasons it is likely that more traditional men, as compared to less traditional men, have narrower and less complex male gender role attitudes and will, therefore, be less susceptible to discrepant male media images. Alternatively, it may be the case that less traditional men have a greater resistance to momentary influences on their gender-related attitudes. Perhaps the very fact that they espouse relatively nontraditional views demonstrates that they have developed defenses against the ubiquitous but more limiting traditional prescriptions for male behavior. The current study was designed to investigate the question of whether the traditionalism of viewers pre-exposure attitudes is related to the likelihood that their attitudinal reports will be influenced by exposure to an advertising image. Attractiveness of Media Models The influence of a media model may also depend on whether the exemplar captures the viewers attention. According to Banduras (1986) cognitive social learning theory, the influence of an observed model is related to the \sway of attention\ (p. This notion suggests that observers will tend to seek out and imitate models who are interesting and otherwise rewarding, whereas they ignore or reject models who have unattractive qualities. If androgynous individuals, who display both masculine and feminine behaviors, are perceived as more attractive than individuals high in only one category (Spence, Deaux, Helmreich, 1985), it might be expected on the basis of social learning theory that viewers will be most likely to imitate these media models. However, Schwarz and Bless (1992a) argue that assimilation is dependent merely on an exemplar being categorized on a dimension relevant to the judgment being made. Thus, it could be that liking for a media model is largely irrelevant to whether men include the models in their mental representations of the male gender role. The present research investigates the issue of whether liking for a media model provides a basis for assimilating that model into ones representations. Similarity of Media Models Similarities between the viewers and the media models are also expected to enhance the impact of media images. The attitude change and attraction literature suggests that observers tend to be attracted to models who are most similar to themselves (e. g. , Berscheid, 1985; McGuire, 1985). Similarity is thought to increase persuasion through its impact on source credibility and attractiveness. Hasss (1981) review of the impact of source factors in persuasive messages suggests that speaker-audience similarities result in greater persuasion because they increase the attractiveness of the message source. Likewise, Tan (1985) suggests that when many diverse characteristics are shared, receivers perceive the source to be \one of us\ or \our kind of people\ and thus infer that they share common needs and goals with the message source. In a similar vein, McGuire (1985) proposes that people infer that sources who differ demographically also differ ideologically from themselves. Thus, it is expected that models who are demographically similar to university students (e. g. , in early twenties versus late sixties) will be perceived as more similar and attractive and hence promote greater acceptance of the modeled behavior. In terms of the inclusion/exclusion model, dissimilar exemplars may simply not be included in viewers mental representation of the male gender role. Taken together, the available theory and evidence suggests that various images of men used in advertising (highly androgynous, mildly androgynous, or traditionally masculine images) can influence the gender role attitudes that men express soon after exposure to these images. However, this influence may be moderated by the gender role attitudes of the participants (more versus less traditional) and the demographic similarity of the media models to the viewers (college age versus retirement age). Several specific hypotheses were investigated: 1. It is expected that the impact of the male advertising images will depend on the initial gender role attitudes of the male viewers. Two competing possibilities were considered. On the one hand, less traditional mens gender role attitudes may be more affected by the momentary influences of all types of gender role portrayals than more traditional men. This pattern is expected to occur if less traditional men have wider representations of the male gender role than more traditional men. Alternatively, less traditional men may be more resistant to the impact of traditionally masculine images than are more traditional men because less traditional men may have developed defenses against the more limiting traditional prescriptions for male behavior. 2. The present research also seeks to determine whether the tenets of social learning theory apply to the impact of male media models on viewers male gender role attitudes. Based on social learning theory, it is expected that male viewers gender role attitudes will be more affected by media models whom the viewers perceive favorably versus unfavorably. Alcoholics Anonymous EssayEffects of Male Media Models on Subsequent Male Gender Role Attitudes A central question of the present investigation was to determine whether male media images can have an immediate effect on mens gender role attitudes and whether such effects are moderated by the traditionalism of participants male gender role attitudes and the demographic similarity of the media models to the viewers. In order to determine whether participants male gender role attitudes were affected by viewing the media models, participants attitudes immediately after viewing the advertisements were analyzed using analysis of co-variance (ANCOVA). The average Gender Attitude Inventory scores were examined as a function of type of original gender role attitude held (more traditional versus less traditional), type of media portrayal (highly androgynous, mildly androgynous, or traditionally masculine), and age of the media models (young versus old), with the participants original male gender role attitudes covaried out. Not surprisingly, original male gender role attitude was a significant covariate (p . 001) of the gender role attitudes they expressed after they had viewed the two advertisements. As expected, the impact of advertising images of men was moderated by the male gender role attitudes of the viewers. The average posttest GAI scores of more versus less traditional participants were differentially influenced by the type of media portrayals they viewed, F(2, 199) = 4. 31, p . 05 (see Table III). (6) While the difference in less traditional participants responses to the three different portrayals was significant, F(2, 107) = 4. 80, p . ere was only a marginal difference in more traditional participants responses to the media portrayals, F(2, 99) = 2. 37, p . 10. Thus, less traditional participants were indeed more susceptible to media influences than their more traditional counterparts. Compared to those respondents who viewed the highly and mildly androgynous portrayals, less traditional participants who viewed the traditionally masculine portrayals endorsed more traditional male gender role attitudes, F(1, 72) = 7. 97, p . 01, and F(1, 70) = 6. 62, p . spectivel y. The average adjusted GAI scores for less traditional participants who saw the highly androgynous and mildly androgynous media portrayals did not differ from one another, F 1, ns. Contrary to the possibility that less traditional men may have developed defenses against traditional prescriptions for male behaviors, less traditional mens gender role attitudes became more traditional, as compared to more traditional mens attitudes, after viewing traditionally masculine male images, F(1, 68) = 5. less than] . Although the influence of the advertising content on the post-exposure gender role attitudes of the more traditional respondents was only marginally significant overall, it may be useful to examine, somewhat tentatively, the pattern of responses seen among these individuals. The more traditional participants who saw the mildly androgynous portrayals displayed significantly greater traditionalism than those who saw the highly androgynous portrayals, F(1, 66) = 4. 12, p . d revealed marginally greater traditionalism relative to those who viewed the traditionally masculine portrayals, F(1, 68) = 3. 58, p . 07. There were no differences between more traditional participants who saw the media portrayals that were gender-typed as highly androgynous and traditionally masculine, F 1, ns. Contrary to the tenets of social learning theory, it appears that viewers liking for the highly and mildly androgynous media models may be unrelated to these models influence. Although there was a nonsignificant trend for type of media portrayal, F(2, 199) = 2. 78, p . 07, this was qualified by participants original gender role attitudes, F(2, 199) = 4. 31, p . 05 (see Table III). Likewise, contrary to Hypothesis 3, it appears that even though the age of the media models tended to serve as a similarity and attractiveness cue for more traditional participants, more versus less traditional participants were not more likely to emulate the behaviors and interests of younger versus older models, F 1, ns. DISCUSSION It appears that mens gender role attitudes can be influenced by the images of men they regularly see in the mass media. Rather than being fixed in memory, it seems that gender role attitudes are dynamic entities that are susceptible to momentary influences that emphasize either more or less traditional images of masculinity. However, it also appears evident that the specific impact that media images have is dependent on how traditional the male viewers are and the type of gender role behaviors and interests to which they are exposed. Contrary to the thought that less traditional men may have developed defenses against the more limiting traditional prescriptions for male behavior, the current investigation suggests that even less traditional men are not immune, at least in the short-term, to the influence of images that reinforce the cultural norm of strong, highly masculine men. Granted that the influence of traditionally masculine images may only be short-term, this pattern still makes one wonder about the malleability of less traditional mens gender role attitudes, particularly given that men are generally portrayed in a stereotypic fashion in the mass media (e. Busby, 1975; Pearson et al. , 1991). Wilson and Hodges (1992) have posited that when people hold complex attitudes, as less traditional men are likely to do, the most salient part of the attitude will have the most influence when a choice is made. Although less traditional men hold less traditional attitudes, they are also part of a culture that places a high value on masculine behaviors and interests and a somewhat questionable value on men displaying feminine behaviors and interests. Since less traditional mens representations of men are rather wide, including both traditional and nontraditional elements, less traditional men are susceptible to images that make more traditional elements of their attitudes salient. The salience of less traditional images, on the other hand, fails to induce change. This lack of influence may occur because the media representations are not sufficiently different from less traditional mens preexisting attitudes or even that less traditional men are less sensitive to nontraditional masculine images that are largely unsupported, if not discouraged, by strong cultural norms. More traditional men, on the other hand, appear less susceptible to the influence of media images of men. Unlike less traditional men, more traditional men did not fully incorporate any of the male portrayals into their representations. In fact, if anything, it appears that more traditional men react against media models who do not fit into their rather narrow pre-established male gender role representations (e. g. , Dillehay, 1978; D. Katz, 1960; Ruble Stangor, 1986; Wagman, 1955). Since more traditional participants may not be able to classify the intermediate, mildly androgynous models as prototypes of either traditional, \manly\ masculine men or \with it\ highly androgynous \modern\ men, they may feel uncertain or uncomfortable about assimilating the behaviors and interests expressed by the male models into their own lives. This uncertainty may cause them to react in a more traditional manner since more traditional attitudes are probably more safe and comfortable to the more traditional participants than are less traditional attitudes. In the same vein, more traditional participants may feel more comfortable expressing less traditional attitudes when they view media models that can be classified and understood to represent a specific type of masculine role (i. e. , masculine or highly androgynous). Even though social learning theory suggests that observers tend to seek out and emulate models who are interesting and rewarding and reject or ignore models who are not, it appears that this straightforward hypothesis does not provide an adequate explanation for the influence of media depictions. Though the men in this study were more favorably disposed toward the highly and mildly androgynous media models, there was not a consistent tendency to emulate the behaviors and interests displayed by them. In fact, the traditionally masculine images appeared to reinforce masculine cultural norms for less traditional participants while more traditional men appeared to reject or respond defensively to images that did not fit their definitions of what are appropriate role behaviors and interests for men. In sum, the argument that people emulate media portrayals that they find attractive may be too simplistic within the domain of mens gender role attitudes. Furthermore, it appears that reported affinity to a media model is largely irrelevant to the manner in which men categorize media images and, thus, has little influence on the likelihood of men including the models into their representations. This study also reinforces the idea proposed by others (e. g. , Hass, 1981; Simons, Berkowitz, Moyer, 1970) that the demographic similarity-persuasion link is not straightforward. First, the college age participants did not uniformly perceive the younger models to be more likable, similar, and attractive than the older models; rather, only the participants whose gender role attitudes were more traditional showed a somewhat more positive response to the younger model. Furthermore, in another instance in which liking for a media model is largely irrelevant to the models influence, even though more traditional participants responded more favorably to the younger versus old media models, their male gender role attitudes were not significantly influenced by the age of the models. The results of the present research suggest that more traditional participants have a greater sensitivity to issues of age and, more specifically, a bias toward youth, or ageism, than less traditional participants. In fact, it was only the more traditional participants who perceived the younger models to be more masculine, similar to themselves, and somewhat more attractive than the older models. Research has found that traditionalism is tied to authoritarian personality characteristics and that, in turn, authoritarianism is tied with prejudiced attitudes toward many social groups (Dillehay, 1978). Thus, it is tempting to speculate that more traditional individuals may also tend to be more ageist than less traditional individuals. The short-term influence of media depictions is especially interesting considering the prevalence of largely stereotypic media images in our daily lives (e. g. , Busby, 1975; Durkin, 1985a; Lovdal, 1989; Pearson et al. , 1991; Signorielli Lears, 1992). Although the present research only examined the short-term influence of media images, it is interesting to speculate whether repeated exposure to traditional images will, over the long term, translate to stable attitude change for less traditional men. This is an even more pertinent question given that media images are continuing to invade more and more facets of our lives. Televisions now play in airports and in schools, advertisements precede video and cinema movie presentations, and audio advertisements now even play while listeners are \on hold\ on the telephone. In addition, even short-term attitude change can have important implications for human behavior. For example, for a period of time after exposure to images reinforcing traditional masculine behavior, even less traditional men may revert to more dominating, sexist reactions toward women. This possibility represents an especially important avenue for future research. The overall implication of this study is that male gender role attitudes are complex and that it is difficult to change these attitudes in all men using the same methods. In line with Durkins (1985b) argument that individual difference variables moderate the impact of mediated models on gender role attitudes, the present research suggests that the influence of male media images is contingent on viewers prior gender role attitudes. While it appears that less traditional mens attitudes are susceptible to male media images, the attitudes of more traditional men, on the other hand, are less flexible, causing them to set up strict boundaries or definitions of what are appropriate male interests and behaviors. Anything that conflicts or contradicts this definition may be rejected. Thus, the present research casts doubts on the feasibility of creating dramatic changes in more traditional mens gender role attitudes through mass media channels because these men appear to reject images that do not fit their frameworks for appropriate male roles. In fact, it is interesting to speculate whether more traditional mens gender role attitudes may be more stable than less traditional men just because they do tend to reject more images of masculine behaviors and interests. Another factor that may be important to the influence of images of masculine behaviors and interests in advertising is the product that is associated with the masculine images. In the present research the products being advertised, gourmet coffee and a personal computer, are upscale products that are not generally considered either highly masculine or highly feminine products. It is interesting to consider whether mens perceptions of the media models would differ and even whether the effect found in the current research would have been different if the products associated with the male media models emphasized more traditionally masculine interests and behaviors (e. g. , a truck) or more traditionally feminine interests and behaviors (e. g. , a household appliance). Once again, it appears that any attempt to influence gender role attitudes through advertising is a very complex process. Not only is it important to examine the impact of the specific behaviors and interests that a male media model displays, but it is also very important to examine what influence the entire image of a media representation has on its viewers. Future research also needs to address the long-term influence of male media images and the effect of individual difference variables on this process. Additionally it would be interesting to further explore whether less traditional men do have a wider representations for the male gender role than do more traditional men. Examination of the impact of mass media portrayals in more realistic settings (i. e. , with more incidental exposure) is also desirable, in order to provide a more authentic view of the actual transmission of male gender role attitudes via mass media sources. Much more remains to be discovered about the impact of media images on human behavior patterns. This paper is based on a thesis submitted by the first author in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of master of arts. We are grateful to Norbert Kerr and Linda Jackson for ideas and suggestions concerning this research; to Ann Baumgardner, Rick DeShon, and the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on earlier drafts; and to Lisa Campbell, Brian Curneal, Nickie DeLaRosa, Moonson Elliott, Corrie Higgins, Leslie Rabaut, Brian Richardson, Nicole Rieger, Christopher Rocco, Adam Stevenson, Glenn Stutzky, and Patrick Taylor for their assistance in data collection. A few of Ashmore et al. s (1995) items were modified slightly in order to enhance the focus on the roles that men versus women play in contemporary American society. Items from eight of Ashmore et al. s subscales were not used (e. g. , homosexuality, female sex initiative, male violence, political leadership, social change, day care, abortion, and individual change). iminary analyses found that there was not a main effect for the gender of the experimenter present when the GAI measures were collected nor was there any interactions involving the gender of the experimenter and the theoretically central variable of type of media portrayal. Therefore, experimenter gender effects will not be discussed further. 5 Unexpectedly, participants appeared to respond differently to the models in the advertisements that featured Delvecchios coffee versus EPS computers on some measures. Since these findings are not related to the type of media portrayal viewed, the central focus in this study, and because these differences cannot be easily explained because the advertisements vary on a number of features (e. g. , photographs, products, name of the model, etc. ), these occasional differences in reactions to the two advertisements will not be discussed further. 6 A regression analysis that maintained participants original gender role attitudes as a continuous variable supported the same conclusions as when gender role attitudes were dichotomized.